S p i r i t ua l i t y S t u d i e s 5 - 1 S p r i n g 2 0 1 9 2 7 Gejza M. Timčák Hinduismor its analogues, especiallyHindu Dharma (Hindu moral and religious law), in various Indic languages. Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, nor a single founding prophet. Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist (Lipner 2009, 17–18 [6], Kurz 2008, Gandhi 1996, 3 [7]). Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult (Flood 1996, 6). A Hindu may, by his or her choice, draw upon ideas of other Indian or non-Indian religious thought as a resource, follow or evolve his or her personal beliefs, and still identify as a Hindu (Long 2007, 35–37). Scholars state that Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain identities are retrospectively-introduced modern constructions (Orr 2014, 25–26, 204). Inscriptional evidence from the 8th century onwards, in regions such as south India, suggests that medieval era India, at both elite and folk religious practices level, likely had a “shared religious culture” (Orr 2014, 42, 204), and their collective identities were “multiple, layered and fuzzy” (Orr 2014, 204). Even among Hinduist denominations such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism, the Hindu identities, states Leslie Orr, lacked “firm definitions and clear boundaries” (Orr 2014, 42). 2 Yoga and Religion As shown above, Yoga means a re-union of the individualized consciousness with the universal consciousness (called also Ultimate reality, Absolute consciousness etc.). From procedural point of view, apart from ascetic observances, Yoga has different tools for achieving samādhi than the sāmkhyan way does (Larson and Bhattacharya 2014, 162, 223, 352). It has to be noted that Yoga has a great number of pathways (tantra, hatha, rāja, jñāna, dhyāna, bhakti, karma etc.) that use specific processes for achieving samādhi. Samādhi is of a number of types. Patañjali (1979 33–40, 72–88, 127, 158–172, 249– 250) defines samprajñāta, asamprajñāta, savitarka, nirvitarka, savichara, nirvichara (these are called sabīja) and nirbīja, samyama (dhāraṇā + dhyāna + samādhi) and dharmameghā samādhi. It is also important to note that Yoga as we know it from the various works on Yoga like Patañjali Yoga Sutras, Hatharatnāvalī, Hatha Yoga Pradīpikā, Gheranda Samhita, Goraksha Śatakam etc., do not include elements of religious processes as known from the Vedic religion (see also Werner 2008, 65–66). Yoga, when practiced by Indians or other nationals belonging to the Vedic religion (“Hinduism”) naturally may be merged into a fusion of Yoga and faith. Nevertheless, Yoga is well distinguishable from faith. Further, as Yoga started to spread around the globe, reference to Hinduism in its context usually disappear. Ambikananda (email conversation with the author, 2018) notes that “[T]he word darshana comes from the root verb ‘drs’ which means ‘to see’. It is perhaps possibly translated as ‘a view taken’. However, the translation of theology is closer to what we understand as such in Hinduism than when it is translated as ‘philosophy’. In the West, generally speaking, philosophy is shaped outside the boundary of religion. That is not the case in India. So neither Samkhya not Yoga are isolated from the religion of India, they were arguments made within the context of the religious thought and tradition of their time and as such are theologies. In fact, they are two of the ‘accepted’ or ‘orthodox’ theologies within Hinduism. You mention Patañjali’s Yoga Sutras indeed, Patañjali’s Yoga Sutra is the orthodox and theologically accepted text of the Yoga Darshana of Hinduism.” This seems to mean that Sāmkhya and Yoga are part of Hindu theology. It is difficult to agree with this as Sāmkhya is a non-theistic philosophy and Yoga refers to Īśvara but does not refer to anything related to Vedas, even though Indian yogis accept the authority of the Vedas. In the 1990-ies in Czechoslovakia there was a big (ideologically motivated) discussion about Yoga and its being or not being a part of Indian religion as well as about Yoga being or not being a religion. All, who knew Yoga were of the opinion that Yoga is not a religion as Yoga did not fulfil the criteria of religion – a point that was discussed earlier. In a presentation of Dojčár, a religious scholar, on a Yoga Conference, it was said that “It is important to distinguish between Yoga as such and the various applications of Yoga in different social, cultural and religious contexts. In the first case Yoga is a spiritual discipline and a path of spiritual development that is based on universally valid principles of spiritual life, In the other case it is a phenomenon of the so called new or non-traditional religiosity. These two meanings cannot be combined or interchanged and mutually non-transferable. Religion is a socially anchored relation of man and the numinous transcendence.” (Dojčár 2001). In any case religion is a highly complex phenomenon that incorporates myths, rituals, prayers, ethical standards, community and similar aspects (Gálik and Gáliková 2017, 4). On the background of the aforementioned explication, Yoga seems to be a specific type of relationship with the numinous transcendence that is based on direct experience and is not
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