22 Spirituality Studies 9-2 Fall 2023 The term itself is still undefined and broad, which in the European context seems to allow for the study of anything outside the traditional Christian understanding of religion by defining it as “spiritual”. It is also noticeable that spirituality is usually used together with the term “religion” and is understood as something different from religion. Pargament attempts to define spirituality as something that is “becoming differentiated from religion as an individual expression that speaks to the greatest of human capacities” (Pargament 1999, 3). In these contexts, the term seems inseparable from “religion” or “religiosity” and has no meaning apart from them. Koenig notes that spirituality was originally understood from within religion, whereas in modern settings religion is understood from within spirituality; spirituality refers to something broader and also includes non-religious beliefs and practices (Koenig 2008, 349–351). In attempting to define this controversial term, several observations can be made. “Spirituality” is often associated with inner practices, suggesting that “religion” does not have individual or spiritual aspects (Zinnbauer, Pargament and Scott 1999). Sometimes it is understood to be closely linked to the New Age, to various new religious movements, to alternative religious forms, to Western esotericism (Bowman 1999; Moberg 2009), or to mental health (Zinnbauer, Pargament and Scott 1999; Koenig 2008). What makes the term even more confusing is the fact that its meaning depends largely on the interpretation of the person using it – not only in academic circles, but also in everyday life. Not to mention the fact that, in personal conversations, even some people who used to claim to be spiritual now distance themselves from the term because they associate it with a derogatory meaning [3]. The different understandings of the term have led to academic debates and misunderstandings, and most of the papers on the subject that I came across ended up avoiding any applicable definition, trusting that common sense would know how to interpret it in the given context. Some scholars have collected various definitions and categorised them, ending up with 9 or 13 different categories (Zinnbauer, Pargament and Scott 1999, 893–94, citing Scott 1997; Zinnbauer 1997). These collections suggest that spirituality can mean experiences or relationships; behaviours and beliefs with a distinction between sacred and secular; a set of beliefs in a higher power; and institutionalised forms or structures. These categories show a wide range of understandings of the term, leading to the suggestion that not only is a common definition impossible, but “there is no necessity for a conceptualization of ‘spirituality’ — the concept of religion is sufficient.” (Zinnbauer, Pargament and Scott 1999, 448). This statement also implies that there is no spirituality without religion, and that spirituality is more of an emic understanding of the inner part of religion with a more Christian-oriented thinking. Even in the face of attempts to define “spiritual” and “spirituality”, we have to accept that it is and will remain a widely used and variously interpreted term. I propose to clarify its meaning within the context in which it is used. In empirical research, it is usually acceptable to use it as the subjects of the study use it (Marler and Hadaway 2002; Koenig 2008). However, this can be problematic when the subjects have different understandings of the term, or when several different research environments are involved. In order to avoid this problem, a thorough analysis is needed, and multi-layered definitions should be developed. All of the above approaches and terms provide an angle and opportunity for understanding and interpreting contemporary alternative phenomena, but the importance of a clear definition and clarification in the context of use must be emphasised. Pseudo-religion, quasi-religion, lived, and vernacular religion and spirituality are all terms that can be used in certain contexts. However, if someone has a spiritual, mystical, or religious experience or belief, it does not mean that they see themselves as falling into one of these categories.
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